A big thank you to October’s sponsor, Rusty Flanagan.
“September 2024 Globally, according to Copernicus, had a temperature anomaly of +0.73C vs 1991/2020 and was the 2nd hottest on record behind 2023.
“Despite the official end of El Niño, the anomalies keep rising compared to the previous months.” [summary by ExtremeTemps]
https://climate.copernicus.eu/surface-air-temperature-september-2024
“It’s official:
“2023-2024 was the first year with a global temperature anomaly above +1.65°C in one or more data sets!” [Graph from Berkeley Earth]
https://x.com/LeonSimons8/status/1843561399324422150
“Breaking News! Code Yikes!
“All the news you don’t want to know and wish wasn’t true. Once again, global sea-ice extent is at a record low for the date. Sigh.”
https://x.com/EliotJacobson/status/1843618051494948952
“Historic drought marks Amazon’s parched landscape
“According to the National Center for Monitoring and Early Warning of Natural Disasters, the current drought is the most intense and widespread Brazil has experienced since records began in 1950.”
https://www.reuters.com/pictures/historic-drought-marks-amazons-parched-landscape-2024-10-09/
“Some 200 people may have been buried after a landslide occurred in a port area of Manacapuru, Brazil’s Amazonas state, according to official sources…
“The landslide could be related to riverbank erosion, which has been worsened by the severe drought affecting the Amazon region.”
https://www.news18.com/world/200-feared-to-be-trapped-in-landslide-at-manacapuru-brazil-9078407.html
“HISTORIC DAY IN BRAZIL – unbelievable TMIN 31.5C [88.7F] Cuiaba is HOTTEST OCTOBER NIGHT IN BRAZIL HISTORY (and 2nd for all South America)
“43.1 Oeiras HOTTEST DAY EVER IN PIAUI STATE. More records Tmins:28.6 Nhumirim, 28.2 Tres Lagoas Tmaxes: 42.2 Sao Joao do Piaui, 40.1 Barra.”
https://x.com/extremetemps/status/1844129769283256545
“In Peru, will potatoes survive climate change?
“…will this multi-billion dollar industry survive the climate crisis? Irregular rainfall and increased frost pose major risks to Peruvian farmers, whose native production is primarily concentrated in mountainous regions.”
“Heavy rains, accompanied by a thunderstorm, caused damage to more than a hundred homes in various areas of the city of Puerto Maldonado, capital of the Madre de Dios region [Peru]…
“In just three hours, the airport recorded 116 mm [4.6 inches] of rainfall.”
“Colombia’s Caribbean islands on front line of war on climate change…
“As representatives of the signatories to the Convention on Biological Diversity prepare to meet in Cali, Colombia, this month, residents of some Colombian islands in the Caribbean are calling for action because rising seas are threatening their homes, families, and way of life.”
“Hurricane Milton makes landfall in Florida as category 3 storm.
“A weakening but still tremendously powerful Hurricane Milton slammed into Florida’s west coast on Wednesday night as a category 3, leaving more than 2 million homes without power, while bringing “catastrophic” winds likely to cause significant property damage.”
https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2024/oct/09/hurricane-milton-makes-landfall-florida
“St. Lucie County authorities have reported “multiple fatalities” following a tornado that devastated the area earlier [one of at least 7 to hit Florida]…
“Officials have reported approximately 125 homes destroyed across the state. Southern Florida experienced severe weather conditions on Wednesday morning, with intense rain and tornadoes wreaking havoc.”
https://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/news/uk-news/hurricane-milton-sees-multiple-deaths-30109192
“THIS IS INSANE! St. Petersburg has reported 5.09 inches of rain in ONE HOUR and 9.04 inches in three hours.
“That’s more rare than a thousand year rain event! Thresholds for 1,000-year rain there: 5.56”/1 hour; 7.16”/2 hours; 8.50”/3 hours.”
https://x.com/MatthewCappucci/status/1844185959312785513
“Helene was supercharged by ultra-warm water made up to 500 times more likely by global warming, study finds…
“Helene, which made landfall in Florida as a deadly Category 4 hurricane at the end of September, carved a 500-mile path of destruction across six states, causing catastrophic flooding and killing more than 230 people.”
https://edition.cnn.com/2024/10/09/climate/hurricane-helene-supercharged-climate-change/index.html
“US emergency crews struggle as climate crisis fuels ‘unprecedented’ competing disasters…
“Costs associated with weather catastrophes are on the rise and even with boosts to the budget, agencies have struggled to keep up, according to Jonathan Sury, a senior staff associate at the national center for disaster preparedness at Columbia University.”
https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2024/oct/09/hurricanes-wildfires-climate-crisis
“Phoenix’s streak of daily heat records reached 15 consecutive days after a 37-year-old mark was beaten on Tuesday.”
This has now reached 16 days and, according to Extreme Temps, “…is the most ever recorded in any station in United States. The old standing record of Burlington Iowa -14 days – dated from 4 to 17 July 1936. 88 years later …it’s gone.”
https://ktar.com/story/5612906/phoenix-daily-heat-records-15-days-in-a-row/
“Record-Breaking Heat Waves Add to Risks for Western Monarchs.
“The increasing intensity and frequency of extreme heat likely compounds stresses on the iconic butterfly, worrying biologists about how the struggling population will respond.”
https://insideclimatenews.org/news/09102024/western-monarchs-record-breaking-heat-waves/
“Record heat sends Utah’s soil moisture falling way below normal.
“According to KSL meteorologist Matt Johnson, October already hit an all-time record high of 92 degrees. Utah has seen seven days in the month that have been 80-plus degrees, and five more days are expected, according to the forecast.”
https://ksltv.com/691464/record-heat-sends-utahs-soil-moisture-falling-way-below-normal/
“Scientists show accelerating CO₂ release from rocks in Arctic Canada with global warming.
“Researchers from the Department of Earth Sciences at the University of Oxford have shown that weathering of rocks in the Canadian Arctic will accelerate with rising temperatures, triggering a positive feedback loop that will release more and more CO2 to the atmosphere.”
https://phys.org/news/2024-10-scientists-arctic-canada-global.html
“Arctic river erosion linked to permafrost thaw…
“Due to climate change, permafrost is slowly thawing over decades. But a river can experience drastic natural changes within a single year, with flow conditions changing from very cold and fast in early spring to warm and slow a few months later.”
https://phys.org/news/2024-10-arctic-river-erosion-linked-permafrost.html
“Heatwaves are burning away memories of the ‘typical British summer’.
“By general consensus the British summer of 2024 was a bit rubbish – even though the numbers say it was about average. What is behind this clash of perceptions? The Met Office socio-meteorologist Helen Roberts says it is because recent hot summers have changed our expectations.”
“Tornado reports after wind leaves trail of damage [England].
“Residents have been clearing up after a violent wind left a trail of destruction in Hampshire. Trees were felled, roof tiles were ripped off and boats were left upturned in parts of Emsworth and Hayling Island at about 20:30 BST on Tuesday.”
https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/cp8l6ln5yrdo
“The remnants of Hurricane Kirk swept into western Europe Wednesday, tearing up trees in Portugal and Spain before dumping heavy rains on France that left at least one dead.
“Energy and Ecological Transition Minister Agnes Pannier-Runacher told journalists the government was mobilising “all state services” and urged citizens to be careful.”
“Summer heatwave caused major losses for Ukraine’s farmers.
“While melon crops were produced in large quantities, farmers struggled to profit due to prices barely covering costs… Vineyards were hit harder, with low yields and small grapes due to drought… The vegetable sector faced similar challenges—drought caused reduced yields and substantial price hikes for staples.”
“Flooding hits Sahara Desert after extremely rare rainfall…
“The Moroccan government said two days of rainfall in September had exceeded yearly averages in several areas that get an average of less than 250 millimeters (10 inches) annually, including Tata, one of the areas hit hardest.”
https://www.independent.co.uk/climate-change/news/sahara-desert-rain-flood-morocco-b2625719.html
“The world’s chocolate cravings speed up deforestation in the Congo Basin…
“A recent study found that cacao farming in the Congo Basin, the world’s largest carbon sink, is linked with up to seven times more deforestation than other agricultural activities… Agricultural trade drives an estimated 90% of global deforestation…”
“Farmers are on their knees, praying for the first summer rains as dry and hot weather conditions are forecast for the interior parts of the country, with little rain expected until December [South Africa]…
“Van Zyl said farmers relied on a good harvest to make a profit, run the farm and pay back their debts. “It’s a time of faith and prayer, we wait for the rain as simple as that,” he said.”
https://www.citizen.co.za/news/farmers-face-crisis-as-rains-delay-heat-wave-looms/
“Climate change drives surge in crop pests and diseases, threatening food security in Kenya…
“Pests and diseases ravaging food crops and other vegetation are becoming bolder and prevalent as a result of climate change and now experts are warning of food insecurity and reduced income from the sector which contributes about 20% to the country’s GDP…”
“Drought & climate change force Ethiopia pastoralists to go job hunting.
“Many pastoralists are forced to seek alternative livelihoods in farming, construction and trade, which require new skills and adaptation to urban life. Former pastoralists express emotional ties to their traditional way of life and struggle with the demands of new jobs…”
“A dust storm on Sunday hit Iraq’s oil-rich province of Basra, with hospitals recording at least 14 cases of suffocation and breathing difficulties…
“Iraq and the Kurdistan Region have witnessed heavy rainfall over the past few days, weeks after authorities announced this winter season had recorded the lowest levels of rain in 80 years.”
https://www.kurdistan24.net/en/story/374790
“Wildfires Contained in Northern Kazakhstan, Central Region Struggling…
“The hazardous conditions resulted in two emergency responders and one volunteer suffering burn injuries during the operation. Senior firefighter-rescuer Khali Khairat died while on duty.”
“RECORD HEAT IN NEPAL AND THAILAND – record heat never ends in Asia.
“Janakpur after having the NEPAL OCTOBER HOTTEST NIGHT with min 27.0 [80.6F] on 3rd, today record max. 37.5. THAILAND 570 days breaking records every day! last ones 36.0 at Takfa (yesterday) and Phliu (today).”
https://x.com/extremetemps/status/1843992047608570285
“In September 2024, average temperature in China was 18.5℃ (+1.6℃), the highest in history!
“Average precipitation was 78.7mm (+20.4%). Five stations temp broke all-time record, and 702 stations broke September record!”
https://x.com/yangyubin1998/status/1843619112175710650
“Korea to face heat waves from April through September due to lagging net-zero drive: climate expert…
“Korea experienced scorching daytime heat and sleepless tropical nights well into late September. It was highly unusual, since the reign of deadly heat waves mostly subsides in late August in a country defined by four distinct seasons.”
https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/biz/2024/10/602_383964.html
“Bleaching Strikes Over 80% of Japan’s Largest Coal Reef; Record-High Sea Temperatures Believed Partly Responsible…
“Bleaching occurs when dark brown plankton that live symbiotically with coral leave, turning the coral white. If bleaching continues for an extended period, the coral cannot get enough nutrients from plankton and subsequently dies.”
https://japannews.yomiuri.co.jp/science-nature/climate-change/20241010-215976/
“HISTORIC HEAT IN INDONESIA – MINIMUM temperature of 28.7C at Sangkapura Island; HOTTEST OCTOBER NIGHT IN INDONESIA’S HISTORY.
“Record also at Bengkulu with a min 25.7C [78.3F]. Thousands of records are being smashed in 100% of the tropics which are obliterating all records set in 2023.”
https://x.com/extremetemps/status/1844195866351108210
“AUSTRALIA BETWEEN RECORD COLD AND RECORD HEAT. Yesterday just 1.0C at Melbourne Airport ties its October record low.
“While scorching hot nights prevailed in the Northwest: min 29.8 [85.6F] Roebourne and 26.9 Mardie. A harsh heat wave is building is central Australia with records expected.”
https://x.com/extremetemps/status/1844181905538940984
“Roads turned into rivers of ‘snow’ when a wild storm struck north of Brisbane on Wednesday night, dumping hail and rain and causing peak hour chaos.
“The ceiling of a Woolworths supermarket and a martial arts business collapsed under the weight of the sudden downpour in Morayfield…”
https://www.thenewdaily.com.au/news/state/qld/2024/10/10/morayfield-hailstorm-and-flooding
“How the source of your tissues and toilet paper is fueling wildfires thousands of miles away…
“The eucalyptus globulus — also known as the Tasmanian blue gum — is an ideal tree for commercial cultivation… The problem is eucalyptus trees are particularly flammable. That’s especially dangerous as the planet heats up…”
https://edition.cnn.com/2024/10/08/climate/portugal-fires-eucalyptus-paper/index.html
“Deforestation ‘roaring back’ despite 140-country vow to end destruction…
“The destruction of global forests increased in 2023, and is higher than when 140 countries promised three years ago to halt deforestation by the end of the decade, an analysis shows. The rising demolition of the forests puts ambitions to halt the climate crisis and stem the huge worldwide losses of wildlife even further from reach…”
“Wildlife numbers fall by 73% in 50 years, global stocktake finds…
“Human activity is continuing to drive what conservation charity the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) calls a “catastrophic” loss of species. From elephants in tropical forests to hawksbill turtles off the Great Barrier Reef, populations are plummeting, according to a stocktake of the world’s wildlife.”
https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/c5y3j0vzpl3o
“Earth’s ‘vital signs’ show humanity’s future in balance, say climate experts…
“The temperature of Earth’s surface and oceans hit an all-time high, driven by record burning of fossil fuels, the report found. Human population is increasing at a rate of approximately 200,000 people a day and the number of cattle and sheep by 170,000 a day, all adding to record greenhouse gas emissions.”
“Tipping points make for a planetary emergency…
“In 2001, tipping points were not even page 16 news because scientists thought warming had to reach 5°C (9°F) to trigger them… However, with… more accurate climate models, tipping points have continued to drop until likely thresholds for the most vulnerable systems now hover around or below 1.5°C of warming (1.8°F).”
“How mainstream climate science endorsed the fantasy of a global warming time machine…
“A new study published in Nature has confirmed… that humanity’s ability to restore Earth’s temperature below 1.5°C of warming, after overshooting it, cannot be guaranteed… Any losses and damages that accumulate during the overshoot period itself would of course be permanent.”
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You can read the previous “Climate” thread here. I’ll be back tomorrow with a “Economic” thread.
I still cant wrap my head around the fact we are all living through the collapse of civilization. I saw the story about the widespread animal extinction on the BBC website last night and was reduced to tears. It is completely surreal that we are blowing through these tipping points. You know its far worse than anyone knows, as keeps getting revealed on a daily basis. Yet the destruction goes on faster and faster, without any plans to stop. Just devastating. Humans completely suck.
Truth. We do suck. I’ve been trying for years to wrap my head around it. Intellectual understanding is as far as I get usually. I know I need to grieve a lot more but I think there must be a self protective mechanism at play. At least my awareness helps me keep some distance from the less important squabbles that get a lot of attention.
For those of us who have been paying attention for many years it seems clear the pace is picking up and the consequences are rapidly becoming clearer to more people.
“I still cant wrap my head around the fact we are all living through the collapse of civilization.”
EMJ, I am charting it and I can hardly believe it myself. It is a huge thing to process and work through.
Would someone help with this question?
When the AMOC stops circulating warm water north, on theory UK will ice up. But is the water too hot for this to happen? Or will there only be cold water on the northern hemisphere?
Just wondering if I am going to freeze or buy a boat?
If UK freezes I assume mobile people will refugee themselves south, or will it be too hot there to live?
Goodness knows why I think about it, pretty sure AMOC is on its way to stopping though
That is a fantastic question – I do hope you get a response.
No need to emigrate. The so-called Amoc problem pops up every now and then in one of those many climate aspects we should be concerned about.
It was really a ‘hype’ at the end of the last century. Britain and Western Europe are becoming like New Foundland….
I would say read the books Wayne Johnstone and especially
Johnston’s breakthrough novel, 1998’s The Colony of Unrequited Dreams – shortlisted for both the Giller Prize and the Governor General’s Award for fiction -.
You can best survive on the short term there….. Amoc or not!
Mad Hatter, there would be pretty severe localised cooling, although that would probably be transitory, given the overall, planetary warming. The southern hemisphere would heat up because less heat would be being transported north.
The likelihood is that we will see a continued decline rather than a shutdown in the near future, but the risk of the latter has been revised upwards by a recent study, which put the likelihood at roughly 50% before 2050.
It may not be much consolation but if AMOC were to halt, weather patterns around the world would be so severely affected – including in key food-growing regions of the tropics – that we would already be entering a dystopian, global collapse scenario with famines and panicking migrant hoards. The financial system, international trade as we know it etc. would not be holding up under that duress.
This article gives a good overview:
“There is growing awareness that the Gulf Stream and the overall Atlantic circulation are nearing a critical point of collapse. The data shows that the largest factor for its weakening is likely an increased influx of freshwater from the melting Arctic and Greenland ice… the AMOC is indeed losing strength, perhaps even faster than first anticipated.”
https://www.severe-weather.eu/learnweather/global-weather-drivers/why-is-the-atlantic-ocean-current-collapsing-and-can-it-cause-global-cooling-fa/
Thanks Pan and Kirsten
Sounds good enough – I had just read Peter Ditlevsen & Susanne Ditlevsen
in Nature – will read your Andrej Flis one, Pan.
It;s just every time we go through a cold spell in uk I think “Is this it?”
Thanks heaps for the updates on it all, Panopticon
You’re welcome, Mad Hatter. As an inhabitant of the Hebrides, I am myself pretty fixated on news about the AMOC. Life would become totally non-viable here. We’d need ice-breaking ferries just to get here and bring in food/supplies over the winter months!
Paul Beckwith put out an interesting video a few weeks ago, wondering if AMOC is already in the process of shutting down:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7gVMgz9j3es
Hello Pan.
It was with ‘a sigh’ that I once again read the latest link from ‘the conversation’….A whole story about the Paris accords and crossing ‘borders’ It then ends with the obligatory quote
…..We will not mitigate climate change without confronting and defeating fossil fuel interests. We should expect climate scientists to be candid about this….. !!!!!
Why don’t ‘we’ understand the simple reasoning, that a societal economic era based on fossil fuels ‘… has no alternative but to “continue” with it. There is no alternative….
Whatever the consequence will be….
The fossil paradigm defines and content and at the same time limits. And ah all those ‘opponents’….. again. It lingers in a total ‘non understanding’ and all they can regurgitate is ‘stop the subsidies’ on fossil fuels.
With greetings to Gretha Thunberg. I do always have nice associations with her name
Indeed, I had a Norwegian beautiful girlfriend once when the world was just covered in glaciers….long before you were born Pan.
Together with her I watched the moon landing ( which never took place) at the foot of the Galdhoppigen glacier where I was assistant guide for ‘snow and ice’.
Her name was Gretha and she was from Tonsberg with one of those dashes through the ‘o’. (Pronounced as Thunberg)
My Norwegian improved by leaps and bounds! I almost emigrated for her. Maybe I should have done it because the Norwegians skillfully manoeuvre on the slack rope of ‘greenwashing’ and Oil and gas exploration of the last European fields.
‘
Zip, whyever did you part company with this gorgeous, Norwegian creature? Was a long-distance relationship impossible? Us gossip hounds need to know. Sounds like you were onto a good thing there.
“Why don’t ‘we’ understand the simple reasoning, that a societal economic era based on fossil fuels ‘… has no alternative but to “continue” with it?”
I suppose there are a few reasons – excessive academic specialisation, ideological/political blinkers, various types of dishonesty and, of course good, old-fashioned denial… It is a pretty unpalatable truth, and us humans excel at denying those.
Hello Pan… what else can i say
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y_V6y1ZCg_8
So correct me if my perception is wrong please, but it would appear that we are at or exceeding 1.6C from two of the above posts.
Right
Ebony, Copernicus has us at “only” 1.54°C over the pre-industrial average 1850-1900 for September.
El Nino and its lagged effects are over though, so the Paris guardrail may be close to permanently breached now. I guess we’ll see what La Nina brings, if there is one.
How to “survive” climate change: Peruvian potato chips to the rescue!
https://www.politico.com/news/2024/10/10/fema-disaster-budget-hurricane-helene-melton-00183219
Meanwhile fema has no money in the collapsing empire. Congress has not allocated more funds yet maybe they did but congress is too busy giving israel and Ukraine money to care about Americans at the moment.
“…worrying biologists about how the struggling population will respond.”
They might ought to worry about what their overpopulating species is doing to their biological habitat.
I just realized I’ve been living a delusion. I really believed that critical thinking was real & that it could override 8 billion egos. It’s true! You can’t fix my stupid.
The title should be, “Fucking with the goalposts.”
“At or near 2C above the 1750 baseline.”
https://guymcpherson.com/science-update-shifting-the-baseline/
Looking at annual CO2 emissions per capita in 2022:
Bhutan, the country with the world’s highest happiness index is 1.35 tonnes.
They grow food, eat food, use animal heat and wood heat to keep warm, live, love and laugh.
Libraries for the scholars. What more do you need?
USA and Russia could reduce emissions by 90% and probably be 10 times happier.
Japan, Germany, China: 80% reduction.
UK, France: 75% reduction.
Mexico, Vietnam: 67% reduction.
Even Indonesia could cut emissions in half.
We will soon all be forced to either successfully transition to the simple life or starve in the attempt.
The sooner we start honing our skills the better.
The Hebrides, excellent choice, Panopticon. Don’t worry about ferries bringing food. Build up your goat herd and grow Kale inside stone fence enclosures.
You’ll be so healthy you’ll dance a jig.
The article a couple of weeks ago suggesting psychedelics as a cure for our suicidal madness was right on. It allows the human brain to think and feel clearly and make radical lifestyle alterations.
It is certainly too late to avoid collapse but microdosing some magic mushrooms will definitely smooth out the necessary adaptations.
Seriously! LOL
“The Hebrides, excellent choice, Panopticon. Don’t worry about ferries bringing food. Build up your goat herd and grow Kale inside stone fence enclosures.”
Thanks, Stephen. I am trying to put some of these prepping measures in place for the kids’ sake but my heart isn’t really in it. I’m afraid I am a pampered lapdog of industrial civilisation and unlikely to thrive in the wild. Re the micro-dosing, I hear good things… but, honestly, I spent a lot of my youth macro-dosing and these days value a clear head above all.
Poor Bhutan’s happiness is under duress, BTW:
“..recent discussions of “Gross National Happiness 2.0” by its newly elected Prime Minister Tshering Tobgay suggest that change on some level is underway as the country struggles with an economic crisis that’s left it — as Tobgay has said— “teetering on the brink of collapse.””
https://www.cnbc.com/2024/05/24/bhutan-introduces-gross-national-happiness-2point0-to-help-economic-crisis.html
“The primary use of ‘misinformation’ is not to change the beliefs of other people at all. Instead, the vast majority of misinformation is offered as a service for people to maintain their beliefs in face of overwhelming evidence to the contrary.” – Michael Caulfield, an information researcher at the University of Washington
Meanwhile homelessness is moving up in some countries. UK way up there.
https://x.com/Kanthan2030/status/1844439563407851956/photo/1
Thanks, Rain. I knew it was bad in the UK but I hadn’t realised we were so egregious. London and Birmingham are worst of all, apparently:
“The UK has the highest rates of homelessness in the developed world, with a significant increase over the past 14 years, particularly in the West Midlands.”
https://blog.bham.ac.uk/cityredi/britain-the-worlds-worst-on-homelessness-what-about-the-west-midlands/
Yes, my mum came from Derbyshire, east midlands I think, , long before it was prettied up. Coal-mining & house servant heritage.
Poor peasant stock for generations. She once told me, her family rules were ” boys down the pits at 12, and girls into service at 13″
My mum went into service as a scullery maid, at 13 for Hilton family (Hilton hosiery, not hotels).. before that, she and her siblings had spent time in the “poor house”.. after her father deserted them.. she liked it, they got clean clothes, got fed at least once a day, and even had a relatively clean bed to themselves…
and she turned 21 the day WW2 broke out.. and felt it was the best thing that ever happened.. she signed up, sat some tests, and she went into the Air Force, (coz they had the best uniforms, and the best pay, and best rations LOL)
trained as an aircraft mechanic.. waving in the bombers on the airbases landing on a wing and a prayer.. swarming over the planes with her teams of women.. getting the things air worthy again .. she ended up with 5 medals for her war-service.
Rain, I can certainly see how WW2 was a blessing from her perspective. I think the war must have been quite empowering for many women…
It is generally an era looked back on with a great deal of fondness by those who lived through it, at least on the home front. I suppose the privations and the uncertainty made people appreciate what they had and value life more. Plus having a shared enemy posing an existential threat, and a clear sense of moral purpose must have been awesome for social cohesion.